Dharma in Indian Philosophy and Literature: Ethical Dimensions and Social Critique in the Bhagavad Gita and U.R. Ananthamurthy’s Samskara

Abstract

At the centre of Indian philosophy is the concept of dharma, which encompasses a sophisticated and dynamic discussion of morality, duty, ethics, and righteousness. According to the Bhagavad Gita, dharma is a dynamic principle that harmonizes personal behavior with a greater cosmic purpose rather than a strict or external code. Krishna's call to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra highlights svadharma, or one's own duty, as originating from one's inherent nature (svabhava) and social role (varna), promoting action carried out without regard for the outcome (nishkama karma). In this sense, dharma is a spiritual path and a moral requirement, where self-realization and harmony among all people are inextricably linked to doing the right thing. Different philosophical schools in India have provided different interpretations of dharma. Dharma is ceremoniously codified and derived from Vedic injunctions in Mimamsa, which prioritizes orthopraxy over philosophical conjecture. Vedanta, especially Advaita Vedanta, on the other hand, sees ethical living as a prelude to the realization of non-dual consciousness (Brahman) and internalizes dharma as a way to achieve moksha. While Buddhist and Jain traditions offer alternative ethical frameworks based on non-violence (ahimsa) and the cessation of suffering, the Nyaya and Vaisheshika systems conceptualize dharma through ethical causality and rational inquiry. These traditions, though they differ, emphasize the importance of dharma as the guiding concept of both individual and group existence. Samskara by U.R. Ananthamurthy revisits this fundamental idea via the lenses of contemporary existential crisis, social stagnation, and the breakup of Brahminical orthodoxy. The novel explores the applicability and inflexibility of traditional ideas of dharma, particularly in light of moral ambiguity and human suffering, and is set in a dilapidated agrahara in colonial Karnataka. A learned Brahmin and defender of scriptural purity, the protagonist Praneshacharya, experiences a deep spiritual and moral crisis when the death of an outcast pushes the bounds of ritual and obligation. The novel creates room for an internal moral awakening that goes beyond textual authority by criticizing the ossification of dharma into meaningless ritual.