Digital Battlegrounds: Cybersecurity, Espionage, and the High-Stakes Rivalry Between the US and China

Abstract

Over the past decade, cyberspace has become a decisive arena of strategic rivalry, reshaping both the practice and the theory of international relations. What began as episodic intrusions aimed at stealing intellectual property has evolved into a sustained contest over critical infrastructure, technological innovation, and the future of global governance. The United States and China stand at the centre of this transformation. Through a series of high-profile cases—including the Equifax breach (2017), the Microsoft Exchange server compromise (2021), and the exposure of the Volt Typhoon campaign (2023–2024)—cyber operations have steadily escalated in scope and ambition.

This study adopts a qualitative approach, combining historical analysis, case study evaluation, and policy review, to examine the trajectory of Sino–U.S. cyber relations from 2017 to 2025. It highlights not only the tactics and strategies employed by both states but also the broader implications of these confrontations for global stability. The analysis suggests that while cyber conflict has deepened bilateral mistrust, it has simultaneously spurred the development of new mechanisms for resilience, the expansion of multilateral attribution practices, and the gradual articulation of emerging norms in cyberspace.

The paper concludes that cyber rivalry is no longer a subsidiary aspect of great-power politics but a structuring force of the international order. The manner in which Washington and Beijing navigate this domain will profoundly influence the balance between competition and cooperation in global affairs over the coming decades.